The 18th Century: A Time of Global Change and Intellectual Transformation

The 18th century, known as the century of lights and revolutions, marked a crucial period for the modern world. It was a time of significant global changes and the beginning of the contemporary age.

Historians consider the 18th century as the first era of the contemporary age, where the world was viewed as interconnected territories rather than isolated regions.

The Chinese Qing Empire continued territorial expansion while remaining isolated. The Ottoman Empire underwent reforms known as the Era of Transformation, shifting towards a less expansionist and more bureaucratic model.

Absolutism was prevalent in Europe in the 17th century, leading to centralized power. Scientific and technological advancements in the 18th century sparked the Enlightenment movement, emphasizing human reason as the source of progress.

The Enlightenment movement, characterized by thinkers who valued human reason for progress, was crucial for subsequent changes in Europe and America. It challenged traditional beliefs and paved the way for intellectual revolution.

The French Revolution, influenced by Enlightenment ideals, led to the overthrow of the absolute monarchy and feudal system. It introduced new individual rights like freedom and equality, inspiring other countries in Europe and America.

The French Revolution resulted in the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte to power. He played a significant role in reshaping Europe through military conquests and establishing the Napoleonic Code, impacting the course of history.

The French Revolution, despite facing external enemies, paradoxically led to the establishment of a new monarchical system with an imperial character. Meanwhile, in Great Britain, aggressive colonial policies propelled the British to explore and colonize territories like India through entities such as the British East India Company, which wielded significant influence in regions like Calcutta and Bombay. The British expansion also extended to Southeast Asia and Oceania, with James Cook exploring new lands. Additionally, the Enlightenment ideas crossed the Atlantic to North America, leading to 13 British colonies gaining independence in 1776 and forming the United States of America.

The British East India Company's dominance in India grew to the extent that it wielded more power than local rulers in regions like Calcutta and Bombay. As the British expanded their control, the declining Mughal Empire faced challenges from new contenders like the Marathas, led by figures such as Shiva Ji, who established the Maratha Empire. This period also saw British expansion into other parts of the world, including the exploration of Oceania by James Cook.

The American colonies under British control gained independence in 1776, forming the United States of America. Meanwhile, in Europe, powers like Austria, Prussia, and Britain were apprehensive about the French Revolution and subsequent French expansionism. Spain, amidst its imperial decline, saw the Bourbons ascend to the throne after a succession war involving all of Europe. The Bourbon rulers centralized power, imposed heavy taxes on overseas territories, and made significant administrative changes, impacting their American colonies.

Spanish territories in Central and South America underwent political and economic reforms, leading to the formation of new viceroyalties. Buenos Aires became the capital of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. Tensions arose between the Spanish and Portuguese over territories like the colony of Sacramento and Montevideo. These reforms and conflicts reshaped the political landscape in the region.

Between 1780 and 1782, a rebellion led by José Gabriel Condorcanqui Noguera, known as Tupac Amaru II, erupted in Peru. Initially a protest against Spanish authorities, it quickly turned into an independence movement. The rebellion ended with Tupac Amaru being captured and brutally executed by the Spanish authorities.

In 1767, Jesuit missionaries were expelled from the American continent, impacting the territories under Spanish rule. This event hinted at the preparation for independence in Spanish territories in the Americas, although the actual independence movements would occur in the following century.

In Europe, significant events included a revolution in thinking, a scientific revolution, the French Revolution, and the Napoleonic Wars. These events led to the rise of nation-states, colonial wars, and advancements in various fields, setting the stage for future developments.

The First Industrial Revolution marked a period of rapid change, transitioning from an agrarian economy to industrialization. Key inventions like the steam engine revolutionized productivity, transportation, and urbanization. This era transformed cities, global trade, pollution, inequality, healthcare, and food production, shaping the modern world.